The Ever-Changing Hero
What do our Protagonists say about us?
Hello and Welcome to the Dropout Classicist! After recent rereads of the Aeneid and the Iliad, I thought today I would bring you a piece on the changing perspectives on heroism in the Classical World, and how this can reflect us! If you enjoyed, and aren’t already, feel free to subscribe for more examinations of myth and history!
Heroes are a central part of the western cultural canon. We have our heroes in everyday life, and create new ones in our stories. Every generation has figures that they can get behind, those whose stories are deeply embedded in their minds. Whether this be the likes of Sherlock Holmes, modern superheroes, or the more reserved protagonist of a novel or romance, the figures we follow shape our dreams, and in turn reflect the ideals of our society.
No time in history is more famous for its heroes than Ancient Greece. Theseus, Odysseus, Achilles and Herakles (or Hercules to the Romans) would be just a few that spring to mind, but the lists are extensive, and the scale of each’s adventure is varied. Heroes from Greek myth found their origin in Epic, the poetic style of wandering bards and fireside stories. Their strength, courage, daring and cunning were to be marvelled at by children and adults alike, in an era of incredibly limited literacy. The Greek Archaic period, following after the fall of the Bronze Age palaces, was the time that such stories flourished and spread.
No doubt inspired by the crumbling, haunting remains left behind by their ancestors, the Greeks spun tales of brave warrior kings, rich cities and evil monsters. We can often see myths of heroes stride the line between fact and fiction. Places often remain familiar to a greek audience (and to scholars), but often the heroes are larger than life. Plus, it goes without saying that the monsters they often face are frequently unrealistic, and the meddling of the gods too.
There is debate as to quite how much these myths are grounded in history. Archaeologists in the late 19th century, especially Heinrich Schliemann, followed works like the Iliad to find remains that seem to align with the poetic vision. Even in antiquity itself, travellers like Pausanias frequently referred to sites in their mythical basis, and (as previously covered in this article) historians like Herodotus often accepted myth as history. Despite this, to take poems at their word is unwise, especially from a historical perspective. But what we can do is examine their heroes, who can tell us much more.
When we examine heroes of this age in general, we can infer a lot of valuable information about social values and the lives people lived, especially when we compare with contemporary sources. When it comes to examining our heroes, we notice first that they are all kings, or at least of noble blood. Secondly, a grand majority are male (Atalanta being the most notable exception), and all contain a talent that sets them apart. Most are insanely strong or fast. Many are gifted with cunning, bravery or intelligence. Almost all have divine favour, or at least try to maintain it (often leading to their downfall). And what do they all seek? Well the specifics vary, but above all it seems to be everlasting glory.
The politics of Archaic Greece only seem to survive to us in broad strokes, as we have very few written sources. In broad sweeps though, it seems that there is mass founding (or re-founding) of poles or city-states, typically under a monarchy. Though many of these monarchies dissolve into oligarchy, it seems that this political climate was rife for the hero stories we see. As I have mentioned, though the Phoenician alphabet was introduced in this period, literacy was minimal. Thus, the only true way to be remembered was to have your feats sung. There was not much good in wealth if nobody knew your name. Thus, we see a heavy emphasis on kleos (glory, sharing a root with kudos) in the heroes’ motives. This makes sense surely, that themes of being remembered and praised for eternity would be incredibly prevalent in the stories, when that was the only way to leave a mark on the world?
It seems this theme dominates greek culture for a long time (though to what extent, we cannot truly know). If we are solely examining the heroes of epic poetry, there is little else to go off after Homer for about 500 years. We must jump forth to Alexandria, then to Rhodes, as we follow in the footsteps of Apollonius. This poet and scholar began his career in Hellenistic Alexandria, a contemporary of Callimachus (see this article). Rising eventually to the rank of chief of collections the library at Alexandria (a dream position that I would take in a heartbeat), he is best known to us for his poem the Argonautica. Echoing Homer, this short epic poem follows Jason and his crew of fellow heroes, on their quest to recapture the Golden Fleece from Aeetes.
The crew of heroes themselves fall well within what we expect from our previous encounters in Greek myth, especially if they have already had prior appearances in poems. Jason, though, seems an exception. Though supposedly the leader of the group, he does not seem to excel in any particular way. Unlike the Homeric model of hero we have seen thus far, he does not rush into battle for glory, nor perform many feats of strength and cunning. In fact, he seems to leave most of the work to his crew, or to Medea, whom he somehow charms, despite her arguably being too cool for him in every respect (yes, she only falls for him through the trickery of the gods, I am aware. I just believe she could have done better). So, the new model of Hellenistic hero almost seems less heroic. Perhaps, this shows a movement of myth to reflect the more current ideals in the social order. After all, in the wake of Alexander the Great and all the petty squabbling kings he left behind, it seems almost impossible to strive for personal glory. Groups of people survive better through co-operation than individual glory nowadays, and Apollonius seems to reflect that. Hellenistic art shows this as a running theme too, especially in statues, as it starts to focus less on the heroics of the past and more on realistic features. Plus, at the time Apollonius is writing, there is a small town across the Mediterranean whose Republic will gradually conquer the known world. So, maybe Apollonius’ figure of Jason, who utilises the strengths of those under his command instead of doing everything himself, seems to have hit the nail directly on the head for the changing times.
The aforementioned little town, situated on the Tiber, is the next stop on our journey through epic poetry. If we jump forward another hundred years, we find the dust just settling as this once insignificant town, Rome, has conquered most of the known world. Then, the oligarchic Republic tore itself apart, until it eventually stitched itself together under Augustus, the first Emperor of Rome. In the wake of the turmoil of Civil War, a young poet rises into the ranks and becomes a literary star. Virgil, who began his work by writing poems about the countryside, devotes what will be the rest of his life to an epic poem in praise of the new emperor. This is of course the Aeneid.
Virgil’s Aeneid is a poem that one could spend a lifetime dissecting and examining. This is not to say that any of the poems I have discussed up to this point lack depth either, but there is just something about the Aeneid that makes it a delight to study. Virgil’s Aeneas is an amalgamation of all the heroes that have come before him, taking from each what will best help build his character. He is brave and mighty, like the Homeric heroes, tearing his way through battlefields and desiring nothing more than to found a new dynasty. However, he is also deeply human like Apollonius’ Jason, if not more-so. He cares deeply for his fellow survivors of the burning of Troy, for his son, his father and many more besides. Plus, unlike the other heroes, he is one we know must be based on a real person. At the end of the day, the poem is a piece of propaganda for Augustus, published posthumously at Augustus’ command. Thus, Aeneas is not just a hero in the Homeric sense, but takes on ideals of a Roman statesman. He is pious and devoted, the son of a goddess, yet also deeply flawed and human. From the very first moment we meet him, he wishes he had died like Hector in Troy, yet he has the strength and devotion to see through the mythical founding of the Roman people.
By no means are any of the heroes that come before Aeneas one-note, but through the various epic poems that survive, we can see not only a building on what has come before, but also a change in approach and ideals. We can almost track through time what each hero represented, and how an audience connected with them. We are still able to relate to many, yet what they stand for is a testament to the time of their creation. Yet they are still ever open to interpretation and reimagining, and so they sit unchanging until the time comes. It is at this point that I must draw this week’s newsletter to a close, though I have barely scratched the surface of each. However, I would like this article to be an overview, or a starting point. I would like to lay out a promise, that in the coming weeks I shall explore the character and nature of some of these heroes in more detail, delving deeper into each and what they stand for. No doubt this has not satisfied your curiosity, but at the very least I hope your interest has been piqued.
Some Sources and Further Reading
The Iliad and The Odyssey, Homer (various translations, and the introductory commentary from each translator is particularly valuable)
The Voyage of Argo, Apollonius of Rhodes (E. V. Rieu’s introduction was of great use writing this piece, and his defence of Apollonius’ poem is compelling)
The Aeneid, Virgil (again, I have consulted various translations over the past few years. I favour David Raeburn’s, though Sarah Ruden’s is great. Robert Fagles’ translation is great to listen to also)
Aeneas and The Roman Hero, R. D. Williams
Art and Myth in Ancient Greece, T. H. Carpenter
Creators, Conquerors, and Citizens, R. Waterfield (this was consulted for the political climates at the time of each poem’s writing, as it provides a pretty great overview)
Consider my interest AND curiosity well and truly piqued! Thanks for writing